His impact was significant as he paved the way for the Hellenistic world.
By Matthew A. McIntosh
Public Historian
Brewminate
Introduction
Alexander the Great was a king of Macedonia who lived from July 356 BCE to June 10, 323 BCE. He was born in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, to King Philip II of Macedon and Queen Olympia, daughter of King Neoptolemus.
Alexander was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle and showed an early interest in literature, philosophy, and military tactics. At the age of 20, he became the ruler of Macedonia following his father’s assassination. He quickly set out to conquer the Persian Empire, defeating the Persian king Darius III in several major battles.
Alexander continued his conquests, reaching as far as modern-day India, creating an empire that covered much of the known world. Along the way, he founded numerous cities, some of which were named after him, and spread Greek culture and ideas throughout the regions he conquered.
However, Alexander’s empire did not long outlive him. Following his death at the age of 32, his empire was divided among his generals, leading to decades of warfare as they struggled for control. Despite this, Alexander’s legacy lived on, and he became one of the most famous military leaders in history, known for his tactical genius, charismatic leadership, and cultural tolerance.
Alexander the Great’s impact on the ancient world was significant, as he paved the way for the spread of Greek culture, science, and politics throughout the regions he conquered. Today, he is remembered as one of the greatest military leaders in history and is still widely studied and revered.
Here we examine all of the military campaigns of Alexander the Great.
The Fall of Thebes
The Fall of Thebes to Alexander the Great took place in 335 BCE during his campaign against the Persian Empire. Thebes, a city in Boeotia in central Greece, had been a long-standing enemy of Macedonia and had refused to submit to Alexander’s rule.
In response, Alexander launched a siege against the city, determined to subdue it and demonstrate his power. The Thebans put up a fierce defense, but were ultimately unable to withstand Alexander’s army, and the city fell after several days of intense fighting.
Alexander was known for his brutal treatment of conquered cities, and Thebes was no exception. In retaliation for its resistance, Alexander ordered the city to be burned to the ground and its population to be enslaved or killed.
This act of violence was a shock to the Greeks and had a lasting impact on the region. The fall of Thebes demonstrated Alexander’s determination and willingness to use force to achieve his goals, and reinforced his reputation as a powerful conqueror. Despite its destruction, Thebes would eventually be rebuilt and regained some of its former prominence, but its fall to Alexander marked a significant turning point in Greek history.
The Battle of the Granicus River
The Battle of the Granicus River took place in 334 BCE between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. It was fought along the banks of the Granicus River in Asia Minor and was one of the first major battles of Alexander’s campaign against the Persians.
The Persian forces, led by the satrap (provincial governor) of Lydia, had gathered along the banks of the Granicus River to block Alexander’s advance. Alexander’s army, consisting of Macedonian and Greek troops, crossed the river and engaged the Persians in battle.
The battle was a hard-fought and bloody conflict, with both sides determined to win. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Alexander’s army was able to push back the Persians and achieve a decisive victory.
Alexander’s tactics and leadership played a crucial role in the outcome of the battle. He personally led the charge against the Persian forces and inspired his troops with his bravery. The Persian army was eventually forced to retreat, and Alexander’s victory at the Granicus River marked the beginning of his conquest of the Persian Empire.
This was a significant moment in Alexander’s military campaign, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and set the stage for his future conquests. The battle would later be remembered as one of Alexander’s greatest victories, and was seen as proof of his destiny as a military leader.
The Capture of Miletus
Alexander the Great’s capture of Miletus took place in 334 BCE during his campaign against the Persian Empire. Miletus was a city located in Asia Minor and was one of the most important cities in the region.
Alexander had already defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus River and was marching towards Miletus, which had declared its allegiance to the Persian king Darius III. In preparation for Alexander’s arrival, the Persians fortified the city and gathered their forces there.
Despite the city’s strong defenses, Alexander’s army was able to lay siege to Miletus and cut off its supplies. After several weeks, the Milesian forces were unable to hold out any longer and the city fell to Alexander’s army.
Following the city’s capture, Alexander offered lenient terms to the Milesian people, allowing them to keep their city and its institutions intact. This was a departure from his usual policy of enslaving the populations of conquered cities and founding new Greek cities in their place.
The capture of Miletus was a significant moment in Alexander’s campaign against the Persian Empire, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and his ability to overcome well-defended cities. The city would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in the region.
Conquering Caria
Alexander the Great’s campaign in Caria was a series of battles and sieges that took place in 334 BCE during his conquest of the Persian Empire. Caria was a region located in Asia Minor, and it was an important center of Persian power.
Alexander’s army first confronted the Persian forces in Caria at the Siege of Halicarnassus, where they were successful in capturing the city. Following the capture of Halicarnassus, Alexander continued his campaign in the region, defeating Persian forces in a series of battles and capturing several other cities.
One of the key figures in the resistance against Alexander in Caria was a local satrap (provincial governor) named Orontobates. Despite his best efforts, Orontobates was unable to defeat Alexander and was eventually forced to surrender.
Alexander’s campaign in Caria was notable for his relatively lenient treatment of the local population. Unlike in other cities he captured, Alexander allowed the people of Caria to keep their city and its institutions intact, and did not enslave them or establish a Greek settlement in their place.
The campaign in Caria was a significant moment in Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and his ability to overcome well-defended cities. The region would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in Asia Minor.
The Siege of Halicarnassus
Alexander the Great’s Siege of Halicarnassus took place from 334-333 BCE as part of his campaign against the Persian Empire. Halicarnassus was a city located in Asia Minor and was an important center of Persian power.
Alexander had already defeated the Persian forces at the Battle of the Granicus River and was marching towards Halicarnassus, which was being defended by a Persian army led by the satrap (provincial governor) of Caria. In preparation for Alexander’s arrival, the Persians fortified the city and gathered their forces there.
Alexander’s army laid siege to the city, cutting off its supplies and attacking its walls. Despite the city’s strong defenses, Alexander’s army was eventually able to penetrate the city’s walls and the Persians were forced to retreat.
Following the city’s capture, Alexander offered lenient terms to the citizens of Halicarnassus, allowing them to keep their city and its institutions intact. This was a departure from his usual policy of enslaving the populations of conquered cities and founding new Greek cities in their place.
The Siege of Halicarnassus was a significant moment in Alexander’s campaign against the Persian Empire, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and his ability to overcome well-defended cities. The city would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in the region.
The Persians Lose Lycia
Alexander the Great’s campaign in Lycia was a series of battles and sieges that took place in 333 BCE during his conquest of the Persian Empire. Lycia was a region located in Asia Minor and was an important center of Persian power.
Alexander’s army first encountered the Persian forces in Lycia at the Battle of the Xanthos River, where they were successful in defeating the Persian army. Following this victory, Alexander continued his campaign in the region, capturing several cities and fortresses.
One of the key figures in the resistance against Alexander in Lycia was a local satrap (provincial governor) named Memnon of Rhodes. Despite his best efforts, Memnon was unable to defeat Alexander and was eventually forced to retreat.
Alexander’s campaign in Lycia was notable for his relatively lenient treatment of the local population. Unlike in other cities he captured, Alexander allowed the people of Lycia to keep their city and its institutions intact, and did not enslave them or establish a Greek settlement in their place.
The campaign in Lycia was a significant moment in Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and his ability to overcome well-defended cities. The region would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in Asia Minor.
The Fall of Pamphylia
Alexander the Great’s campaign in Pamphylia was a series of battles and sieges that took place in 333 BCE during his conquest of the Persian Empire. Pamphylia was a region located in Asia Minor and was an important center of Persian power.
Alexander’s army first encountered the Persian forces in Pamphylia at the Battle of Issus, where they were successful in defeating the Persian army led by Darius III. Following this victory, Alexander continued his campaign in the region, capturing several cities and fortresses.
Alexander’s campaign in Pamphylia was notable for his relatively lenient treatment of the local population. Unlike in other cities he captured, Alexander allowed the people of Pamphylia to keep their city and its institutions intact, and did not enslave them or establish a Greek settlement in their place.
The campaign in Pamphylia was a significant moment in Alexander’s conquest of the Persian Empire, as it demonstrated his tactical prowess and his ability to overcome well-defended cities. The region would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in Asia Minor.
The Naval Offensive of Memnon
Alexander the Great faced opposition from a prominent Greek mercenary commander named Memnon of Rhodes during his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. Memnon was a highly capable military leader and was tasked with defending several key cities in Asia Minor against Alexander’s advance.
At the Battle of the Granicus River in 334 BCE, Memnon commanded a significant portion of the Persian army and put up a strong resistance against Alexander’s forces. However, despite his best efforts, Memnon was eventually defeated and forced to retreat.
Memnon’s most notable opposition to Alexander came in 333 BCE, when he led the defense of the city of Halicarnassus, located in Caria (modern-day Turkey). Memnon’s forces put up a strong resistance against Alexander’s army, and the siege of Halicarnassus lasted several months.
Although Memnon was ultimately unsuccessful in stopping Alexander’s advance, his efforts to defend the city of Halicarnassus earned him a reputation as a formidable opponent. The siege of Halicarnassus was one of the longest and most difficult sieges that Alexander faced during his campaign, and it demonstrated his ability to overcome well-defended cities.
Despite his military prowess, Memnon died of illness during the siege of Halicarnassus, and his death was a significant loss to the Persian resistance against Alexander. Nevertheless, his legacy as a brave and capable military leader has endured, and he is remembered as one of Alexander the Great’s most formidable opponents.
The Battle of Issus
The Battle of Issus pitted Alexander the Great against the Persian king Darius III in 333 BCE. It was one of the most significant battles of Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire.
The battle took place near the coastal town of Issus in the region of Pamphylia, in what is now southern Turkey. The Persian army, led by Darius III, was seeking to stop Alexander’s advance and protect the heart of their empire. Alexander’s army was composed of a mixture of Macedonian and Greek soldiers, and was supported by a strong cavalry force.
The battle was fought on narrow terrain along the banks of the Pinarus River, and the two sides clashed in a brutal and bloody fight. The key to the battle was the Macedonian phalanx, a formation of heavy infantry that was virtually impenetrable. With their superior tactics and training, the Macedonian phalanx was able to break through the Persian line and force Darius III to flee the battlefield.
The Battle of Issus was a decisive victory for Alexander, as it effectively ended the Persian threat to his campaign and allowed him to continue his advance into the heart of the Persian Empire. The battle also marked the beginning of Alexander’s reputation as one of the greatest military commanders in history, and helped to secure his legacy as a conqueror and visionary leader.
Marriage at Susa
Susa was an ancient city located in what is now Iran and was one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. Alexander the Great visited Susa during his campaigns in the Persian Empire and played an important role in the city’s history.
After his victory at the Battle of Issus, Alexander captured Susa and claimed it as a key stronghold in his conquest of the Persian Empire. He ordered the rebuilding of the city’s fortifications and established a new government to administer the city and its surrounding territory.
Alexander is said to have used Susa as a base for his further campaigns in Persia, and it became a center of administration for his empire. He also held a grand marriage ceremony in Susa, in which he and many of his officers married Persian princesses in a bid to unite the Greek and Persian peoples.
Cilicia after Issus
Alexander’s army encountered the Persian forces in Cilicia in 333 BCE, following his victory at the Battle of Issus. Alexander’s army was composed of a mixture of Macedonian and Greek soldiers, and was supported by a strong cavalry force.
The Persian forces in Cilicia were commanded by a satrap named Arsames, who put up a strong resistance against Alexander’s army. However, despite their best efforts, the Persians were eventually defeated and forced to retreat.
Following his victory in Cilicia, Alexander continued his campaign in the region, capturing several cities and fortresses. The campaign in Cilicia was significant in that it demonstrated Alexander’s ability to overcome well-defended cities and continue his advance into the heart of the Persian Empire.
The region of Cilicia would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in Asia Minor, and many of the cities that Alexander captured in the region continued to thrive under Greek influence for centuries. Alexander’s campaign in Cilicia was a key moment in his conquest of the Persian Empire, and it helped to secure his legacy as a conqueror and visionary leader.
Tyre: An Island Falls
The fall of Tyre to Alexander the Great was a significant event in his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. Tyre was an important Phoenician city located on an island off the coast of modern-day Lebanon, and it was known for its impressive fortifications and powerful navy.
In 332 BCE, Alexander began a siege of Tyre with the goal of capturing the city and expanding his control over the eastern Mediterranean. The siege lasted several months, and Alexander’s army faced significant challenges in overcoming Tyre’s strong defenses.
The Tyrians put up a strong resistance against Alexander’s army, and the siege required the construction of a massive causeway to allow Alexander’s troops to reach the island. Despite their efforts, the Tyrians were eventually defeated, and the city fell to Alexander’s army.
The fall of Tyre was a significant moment in Alexander’s campaign, as it demonstrated his ability to overcome well-defended cities and expand his control over the eastern Mediterranean. It also marked the beginning of Alexander’s efforts to spread Greek culture and civilization throughout the region, and many of the cities that he captured in the eastern Mediterranean continued to thrive under Greek influence for centuries.
Alexander’s capture of Tyre remains one of the most memorable moments of his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, and it helped to secure his legacy as a conqueror and visionary leader.
Siege of Gaza
The siege of Gaza by Alexander the Great was a key event in his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. Gaza was a strategically important city located in the southern part of the Levant, and it was considered a major obstacle to Alexander’s advance into the Persian heartland.
The siege of Gaza took place in 332 BCE, following Alexander’s victory at the Battle of Issus. Alexander’s army was composed of a mixture of Macedonian and Greek soldiers, and was supported by a strong cavalry force.
The Persian forces in Gaza put up a strong resistance against Alexander’s army, and the siege lasted several months. The city was well-defended and was located in a difficult to reach area, making the siege a major challenge for Alexander’s army.
Despite their best efforts, the Persians were eventually defeated and the city of Gaza fell to Alexander’s army. The fall of Gaza was a significant moment in Alexander’s campaign, as it demonstrated his ability to overcome well-defended cities and expand his control over the eastern Mediterranean.
The region of the Levant would later play a significant role in the spread of Greek culture and civilization in the eastern Mediterranean, and many of the cities that Alexander captured in the region continued to thrive under Greek influence for centuries. Alexander’s siege of Gaza was a key moment in his conquest of the Persian Empire, and it helped to secure his legacy as a conqueror and visionary leader.
The Battle of Gaugamela
The Battle of Gaugamela was a decisive battle fought between Alexander and the Persian King Darius III in 331 BCE. It took place near the modern-day city of Mosul in Iraq and was one of the most important battles of Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire.
Alexander’s army was composed of a mixture of Macedonian and Greek soldiers, and was supported by a strong cavalry force. Darius III’s army was much larger and consisted of a large number of Persian troops, as well as soldiers from the various territories under Persian rule.
The battle was fought on a plain near the city of Gaugamela, and was marked by intense fighting between the two sides. Despite being greatly outnumbered, Alexander’s army was able to outmaneuver and defeat the Persian forces, thanks in large part to Alexander’s tactical genius and the superior training and discipline of his soldiers.
The Battle of Gaugamela was a decisive victory for Alexander, as it effectively ended Darius III’s rule and led to the collapse of the Persian Empire. The battle demonstrated Alexander’s military prowess and his ability to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds, and it helped to secure his legacy as a great conqueror and visionary leader.
The Battle of Gaugamela was one of the most important events of Alexander’s campaign, and it marked a turning point in the history of the ancient world, as it signaled the end of the Persian Empire and the beginning of the spread of Greek culture and civilization throughout the eastern Mediterranean.
Enemy to Friend: The Babylonian Surrender of Mazaeus
Mazaeus was a prominent Persian nobleman and governor who served under King Darius III during the reign of Alexander the Great. After the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE, which marked the defeat of Darius III’s army and the collapse of the Persian Empire, Mazaeus surrendered to Alexander and became one of the first Persian officials to offer his loyalty to the young conqueror.
Mazaeus’ surrender was seen as a major turning point in the relationship between Alexander and the Persian people, as it demonstrated that there were elements within the Persian nobility who were willing to work with the conqueror and help him establish his rule over the newly conquered territories.
Alexander was known for his ability to win over the loyalty of conquered peoples, and he was eager to establish a working relationship with the Persian nobility. In recognition of Mazaeus’ loyalty, Alexander appointed him as the governor of Babylon, one of the most important cities in the Persian Empire.
Mazaeus’ surrender and appointment as governor of Babylon helped to demonstrate Alexander’s willingness to work with the Persian nobility, and it paved the way for further cooperation between the conqueror and the Persian people. This was an important moment in the history of Alexander’s reign, as it helped to establish the foundation for the spread of Greek culture and civilization throughout the eastern Mediterranean.
The Battle of Susa
The Battle of Susa was a military engagement fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian forces during his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. The battle took place in 330 BCE in the city of Susa, which was one of the largest cities in the Persian Empire and a major center of power and wealth.
Alexander and his army had already conquered a number of cities in the region, and the Battle of Susa was part of his effort to secure the western provinces of the Persian Empire. The Persian forces put up a strong resistance, but Alexander’s army was able to overcome their defenses and take control of the city.
The Battle of Susa was significant for several reasons. Firstly, it demonstrated Alexander’s military prowess and his ability to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. Secondly, it marked the capture of one of the most important cities in the Persian Empire, which was a significant step in Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire.
Additionally, the Battle of Susa was significant because of the wealth and treasures that Alexander and his army discovered in the city. Susa was known for its rich cultural heritage and was a major center of learning and scholarship. The city was also home to numerous temples and palaces, which were filled with valuable treasures and works of art.
The Battle of Susa was an important moment in the history of Alexander’s campaign, as it marked the capture of one of the most important cities in the Persian Empire and demonstrated Alexander’s military prowess and his ability to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. The battle also helped to secure the western provinces of the Persian Empire and paved the way for Alexander’s continued expansion into the eastern Mediterranean.
At the Gate: Continuing the Fight against Persia
The Battle of the Persian Gate was a military engagement fought between the forces of Alexander the Great and the Persian army during Alexander’s campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. The battle took place in 330 BC and was fought in the region of the Persian Gate, a mountain pass that provided the main land route from the western part of the Persian Empire to the east.
Alexander’s army had been advancing through the Persian Empire, conquering one city after another, and the Battle of the Persian Gate was an effort to secure the western provinces of the Persian Empire. The Persian army put up a strong resistance, but Alexander’s army was able to overcome their defenses and push through the mountain pass.
The Battle of the Persian Gate was a significant moment in Alexander’s campaign, as it demonstrated his military prowess and his ability to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. The battle also helped to secure the western provinces of the Persian Empire and paved the way for Alexander’s continued expansion into the eastern Mediterranean.
Additionally, the Battle of the Persian Gate was significant because it marked the end of the Persian army’s resistance in the western provinces of the Persian Empire, and it demonstrated Alexander’s complete control over the region. The battle was a turning point in the history of the Persian Empire, as it marked the beginning of the decline of the once-great empire and the rise of Alexander’s own empire.
In the end, the Battle of the Persian Gate was an important moment in the history of Alexander’s reign, as it demonstrated his military prowess, his determination to conquer the Persian Empire, and his ability to secure the western provinces of the empire and pave the way for his continued expansion into the eastern Mediterranean.
Looting and Destroying the Persian Capital at Persepolis
Alexander the Great and his army arrived at Persepolis, the capital of the Persian Empire, in 330 BC. Persepolis was one of the largest cities in the ancient world and was renowned for its wealth, beauty, and cultural heritage.
Alexander and his army were greeted with resistance from the Persian army, but after a siege, they were able to overcome the Persian defenses and enter the city. Alexander was reportedly so taken with the city’s beauty that he decided to spare it from destruction, but a fire broke out during a victory celebration and much of the city was destroyed.
The events at Persepolis marked a turning point in Alexander’s campaign, as it demonstrated his complete control over the Persian Empire and his determination to conquer and subdue the region. The fall of Persepolis also marked the end of the Persian Empire as a major power in the ancient world and the beginning of Alexander’s empire.
Additionally, the events at Persepolis were significant because they demonstrated Alexander’s respect for cultural heritage, even as he sought to conquer and control the region. Despite his military conquests, Alexander was known to be a patron of the arts and was deeply interested in the cultures of the regions he conquered.
In the end, Alexander’s arrival at Persepolis marked a significant moment in the history of the ancient world, as it demonstrated his military prowess, his determination to conquer the Persian Empire, and his respect for cultural heritage. The events at Persepolis helped to establish Alexander as one of the greatest military leaders in history and cemented his legacy as a conqueror and patron of the arts.
Death of Darius III
The death of Darius III, the last king of the Achaemenid Empire, is shrouded in mystery. Darius was defeated by Alexander at the Battle of Issus and was later captured by Bessus, one of his own nobles, who declared himself the new king of Persia.
According to ancient historians, Bessus had Darius murdered to solidify his own claim to the throne. However, the exact circumstances of Darius’s death are unclear and there are conflicting accounts.
Curtius Rufus, a Roman historian, wrote that Darius was killed by Bessus and his allies as they were retreating from Alexander’s army. Plutarch, a Greek biographer, also mentioned that Darius was killed by Bessus but gave a different account of the events leading up to his death.
Arrian, another Greek historian, stated that Darius was killed by one of his own soldiers for the bounty offered by Alexander.
Given the lack of reliable evidence, the exact details of Darius III’s death remain a subject of debate and speculation.
Hunting Hyrcania
Hyrcania was a wealthy province in modern Iran with abundant resources, including timber, pasture lands, and fertile farmland.
Alexander arrived in Hyrcania in 330 BCE and quickly defeated the local Persian forces. He then established a new province, known as Hyrcania, and appointed a governor to administer the region on his behalf.
Alexander was known for his military prowess and strategic thinking, and his conquest of Hyrcania was no exception. He quickly gained the loyalty of the local population by promoting good governance and treating the people fairly.
Alexander’s visit to Hyrcania also had a lasting impact on the region’s cultural and political landscape. He encouraged intermarriage between his troops and local women, which helped to spread Greek culture and influence throughout the region.
In addition to its strategic and cultural importance, Hyrcania was also valuable to Alexander for its resources. He used the region’s wealth to support his army and finance his future conquests.
Overall, Alexander’s conquest of Hyrcania was a significant event in his career and had far-reaching implications for the region and the Persian Empire.
Conquest of Parthia
Parthia, a region located in present-day Iran and Turkmenistan, was a wealthy province with abundant resources, including fertile farmland, precious metals, and horse breeding grounds.
Alexander arrived in Parthia in 330 BCE and quickly defeated the local Persian forces. He then established a new province, known as Parthia, and appointed a governor to administer the region on his behalf.
Alexander was known for his military prowess and strategic thinking, and his conquest of Parthia was no exception. He quickly gained the loyalty of the local population by promoting good governance and treating the people fairly.
Alexander’s visit to Parthia also had a lasting impact on the region’s cultural and political landscape. He encouraged intermarriage between his troops and local women, which helped to spread Greek culture and influence throughout the region.
In addition to its strategic and cultural importance, Parthia was also valuable to Alexander for its resources. He used the region’s wealth to support his army and finance his future conquests.
Overall, Alexander’s conquest of Parthia was a significant event in his career and had far-reaching implications for the region and the Persian Empire.
Aria after Parthia
Aria, a region located in present-day western Afghanistan, was a wealthy province with abundant resources, including fertile farmland, precious metals, and horse breeding grounds.
Alexander arrived in Aria in 330 BCE and quickly defeated the local Persian forces. He then established a new province, known as Aria, and appointed a governor to administer the region on his behalf.
Alexander was known for his military prowess and strategic thinking, and his conquest of Aria was no exception. He quickly gained the loyalty of the local population by promoting good governance and treating the people fairly.
Alexander’s visit to Aria also had a lasting impact on the region’s cultural and political landscape. He encouraged intermarriage between his troops and local women, which helped to spread Greek culture and influence throughout the region.
In addition to its strategic and cultural importance, Aria was also valuable to Alexander for its resources. He used the region’s wealth to support his army and finance his future conquests.
Overall, Alexander’s conquest of Aria was a significant event in his career and had far-reaching implications for the region and the Persian Empire.
Philotas in Drangiana
In Drangiana, Alexander the Great encountered various challenges and opportunities. Drangiana was a province located in present-day southeastern Iran and southwestern Afghanistan. It was a part of the Persian Empire at the time, and Alexander conquered it during his invasion of Persia in 330 BCE.
Alexander faced resistance from the local population, as well as from various tribal groups in the region. Despite these challenges, he was able to establish a Greek-style administration in the province, and introduced Greek culture and ideas to the local population, led by Philotas.
Parmenion was one of the top military commanders of Alexander the Great, and played a key role in many of the king’s early victories and conquests.
Parmenion was a seasoned veteran and experienced commander, having served in several wars and conflicts before joining Alexander’s army. He was well-respected by both the king and his troops, and was known for his tactical acumen and bravery.
In addition to his military contributions, Parmenion also served as a trusted advisor to Alexander, providing counsel on a variety of political and military matters. He was an important figure in the early years of Alexander’s reign, and helped lay the foundation for the king’s later conquests and expansion of the Greek empire.
Parmenion’s son, Philotas, was also a well-known figure in the court of Alexander the Great, serving as a commander in the Companion Cavalry.
However, Philotas is most famously known for his role in a conspiracy against Alexander the Great. According to ancient sources, Philotas was accused of plotting against the Alexander’s life, and was put on trial and executed. The exact circumstances surrounding the conspiracy and Philotas’s role in it are not entirely clear, and different accounts offer different interpretations of the events.
Regardless of the specifics, Philotas’s fate serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of plotting against a powerful and ruthless leader like Alexander. It also highlights the unstable political climate that existed within the Macedonian court during the reign of Alexander, as various factions and individuals jostled for power and influence.
Overall, Alexander’s conquest of Drangiana was an important part of his larger campaign to conquer the Persian Empire and spread Greek culture throughout the ancient world. Despite the difficulties he faced in the region, he was ultimately able to secure control and lay the foundations for future cultural exchange and cooperation between the Greeks and the peoples of Drangiana.
Eastward to Gandhara
Gandhara was a region located in present-day northern Pakistan and northeastern Afghanistan.
Gandhara was known for its rich cultural heritage, blending elements of Greek, Persian, and Indian civilizations. The region was also a center of trade and commerce, connecting the Greek world with the East.
Alexander faced resistance from the local population and various tribal groups in Gandhara, but ultimately was able to secure control of the region. After the conquest, he established a Greek-style administration and introduced Greek culture and ideas to the local population.
Alexander’s conquest of Gandhara had far-reaching effects on the region and beyond. It helped spread Greek culture and ideas throughout the ancient world, and laid the foundation for future cultural exchange and cooperation between the Greeks and the peoples of Gandhara. Additionally, it opened up new trade routes and connected the Greek world with the East, fostering economic and cultural exchange between the two regions.
Overall, Alexander’s conquest of Gandhara was an important part of his larger plan to conquer the Persian Empire and spread Greek culture throughout the ancient world. Despite the difficulties he faced in the region, he was ultimately able to secure control and lay the foundations for future cultural exchange and cooperation between the Greeks and the peoples of Gandhara.
Where No Greek Has Gone Before: Crossing the Hindu Kush
Alexander’s crossing of the Hindu Kush was a significant event in his campaign. The Hindu Kush is a mountain range that runs through present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, and was considered one of the major barriers to travel and communication between the East and West.
Alexander’s army encountered the Hindu Kush during their march eastward, and they faced a major challenge in crossing the difficult and treacherous terrain. Despite the difficulties, Alexander was determined to continue his campaign and secure control of the region, and he pressed on with his army across the mountains.
The exact details of Alexander’s crossing of the Hindu Kush are not well-documented, but it is known that the journey was difficult and required the use of specialized equipment and techniques to overcome the challenges of the terrain. The crossing was also marked by encounters with local tribes and resistance from the population, but Alexander and his army were ultimately able to overcome these challenges and continue their march eastward.
Alexander’s crossing of the Hindu Kush is an example of his determination and bravery, as well as his commitment to expanding his empire and spreading Greek culture and ideas throughout the ancient world. The event is also a testament to the ingenuity and resourcefulness of Alexander’s army, as they navigated the difficult and treacherous terrain of the Hindu Kush and secured a key strategic position in the region.
The Oxus Challenge
The Macedonian army encountered the River Oxus (also known as the Amu Darya) after clearing the Hindu Kush. The Oxus is a major river that flows through present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, and was considered one of the natural borders between the Greek and Persian worlds.
The river posed a major challenge for the king and his troops. Despite the difficulties, Alexander was determined to continue his campaign and secure control of the region, and he pressed on with his army across the river.
The exact details of Alexander’s crossing of the Oxus are not well-documented, but it is known that the journey was difficult and required the use of specialized equipment and techniques to overcome the challenges of the river. The crossing was also marked by encounters with local tribes and resistance from the population, but Alexander and his army were ultimately able to overcome these challenges and continue their march eastward.
The event is also a testament to the ingenuity and resourcefulness of Alexander’s army, as they navigated the challenging conditions of the Oxus and secured a key strategic position in the region.
Avenging the Opposing Dead King
Alexander eventually caught up with Bessus, the Persian general who had turned on and killed Darius. He was captured and brought before Alexander for trial. Bessus was convicted of treason and his punishment was to be executed in a particularly brutal manner, which was customary for those who had committed treason in ancient Persia. His body was stripped, flayed, and hung for Alexander’s army to walk beneath as they left.
Bessus’ rebellion against Darius III and subsequent resistance against Alexander the Great marked an important turning point in the conflict between the Greeks and Persians. Alexander’s capture and punishment of Bessus helped to establish his authority over the Persian Empire and solidified his control over the region.
Overall, Alexander’s confrontation with Bessus was a significant event in his campaign to conquer the Persian Empire, and it helped establish his authority and control over the region. The event also highlights the political instability and power struggles that characterized the latter years of the Persian Empire and the challenges that Alexander faced in consolidating his control over the region.
Syr Darya: Coming to the Jaxartes
Alexander the Great encountered the Jaxartes River during his campaigns in Central Asia. The Jaxartes River, known as the Syr Darya in modern-day Kazakhstan, was a significant natural barrier that Alexander had to cross in his conquest of the Persian Empire. In 329 BCE, Alexander and his army reached the Jaxartes and faced resistance from the Scythian tribes who inhabited the region.
Despite the difficult conditions and fierce opposition, Alexander successfully crossed the Jaxartes and defeated the Scythian forces in battle. This victory marked a significant milestone in his campaign and demonstrated his military prowess and determination. Alexander’s successful crossing of the Jaxartes also helped to expand his empire and solidify his rule over the newly conquered territories.
Alexander was known for his tactical genius and leadership skills, and his campaign in Central Asia was no exception. He effectively navigated the challenging terrain and was able to overcome the resistance of the Scythian tribes to achieve his goal of expanding his empire. The successful crossing of the Jaxartes was a testament to Alexander’s exceptional abilities as a military leader and solidified his reputation as one of the greatest conquerors in history.
‘Alexandria the Furthest’: Founding Alexandria Eschatê
Alexandria Eschate, also known as Alexandria the Furthest, was a city founded by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE during his campaigns in Central Asia. It was located on the southern bank of the Jaxartes River, near modern-day Khujand in Tajikistan.
Alexander founded Alexandria Eschate as a military base and supply depot to support his campaigns further east. The city was named “Eschate,” which means “the furthest” in Greek, because it was the furthest extent of Alexander’s empire at the time. The city served as a hub for trade and commerce between the Greek and local populations and was a symbol of the spread of Greek culture and civilization in Central Asia.
Alexandria Eschate remained a significant city in the region for centuries after Alexander’s death. It was later conquered by the Seleucids, the Bactrians, and the Parthians, and was finally absorbed into the Kushan Empire. Despite its long history, much of the city has been lost to time, and little remains of the once-great city founded by Alexander the Great.
Today, Alexandria Eschate is remembered as an important part of Alexander the Great’s legacy and a testament to his far-reaching ambitions and accomplishments. Despite the challenges he faced, Alexander was able to establish a thriving city at the edge of his empire, which played a significant role in shaping the course of history in Central Asia.
Spitamenes and the Sogdian Conquest
Alexander the Great encountered the Sogdian people during his campaigns in Central Asia. Sogdia was a large kingdom located in the region that is now Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and parts of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan. The Sogdian people were a powerful force in the region and posed a significant challenge to Alexander’s attempts to conquer the Persian Empire.
In 329 BCE, Alexander and his army arrived in Sogdia and faced resistance from the local population and their ruler, Spitamenes. Despite the difficult conditions and fierce opposition, Alexander was able to defeat Spitamenes in battle and conquer the Sogdian kingdom. This victory marked a significant milestone in Alexander’s campaign and demonstrated his military prowess and determination.
The exact circumstances of Spitamenes’ death are unclear, but it is believed that he was either captured and executed or died in battle.
Alexander’s successful conquest of Sogdia helped to expand his empire and solidify his rule over the newly conquered territories. He was known for his tactical genius and leadership skills, and his campaign in Sogdia was no exception. He effectively navigated the challenging terrain and was able to overcome the resistance of the Sogdian people to achieve his goal of expanding his empire.
The legacy of Alexander’s campaign in Sogdia remains an important part of his legacy and a significant chapter in the history of Central Asia.
A Regretful, Drunken Rage
The murder of Clitus was a tragic event that occurred during the reign of Alexander the Great. Clitus was a close friend and trusted officer of Alexander, and the two men had served together in many battles and campaigns.
One night, while Alexander was celebrating a victory, he became drunk and got into an argument with Clitus. In the heat of the moment, Alexander drew his sword and killed Clitus. The murder was a significant blow to Alexander’s reputation and had lasting consequences for his relationships with his officers and soldiers.
Alexander was deeply remorseful for his actions and is said to have been haunted by guilt for the rest of his life. He ordered a grand funeral for Clitus and built a monument to his memory, but the damage to his reputation was already done. The murder of Clitus was a turning point in Alexander’s life and marked a dark chapter in his otherwise illustrious career.
Despite his achievements and successes, the murder of Clitus remains a reminder of the human flaws and weaknesses that even the greatest leaders are capable of. It is a cautionary tale about the dangers of anger and the importance of self-control, even in the heat of the moment.
Capturing Maracanda
Maracanda (also known as Samarkand) was a city located in what is now Uzbekistan, and it was visited by Alexander the Great during his campaigns in Central Asia. Alexander arrived in Maracanda in 329 BCE and encountered resistance from the local population, who were loyal to the Persian king Darius III.
Despite the resistance, Alexander was able to capture Maracanda and its surrounding territories. He treated the city and its citizens with leniency, and many of the local population were impressed by his generosity and fair treatment.
Alexander’s stay in Maracanda was brief, but it marked a significant moment in his campaigns in Central Asia. The city was strategically located and served as a valuable military base and supply depot for Alexander’s army as they continued their eastward advance.
Alexander’s visit to Maracanda is remembered as an important chapter in the history of Central Asia and serves as a testament to his military prowess and leadership skills. Despite the challenges he faced, Alexander was able to overcome resistance and establish control over the city, which became an important part of his empire.
Today, Maracanda (now known as Samarkand) remains a vibrant city and is considered one of the most important cultural and historical centers of Uzbekistan. Alexander’s visit to the city over two thousand years ago remains an important part of its history and continues to be remembered and celebrated.
On This Rock
The Sogdian Rock was a strategically important fortress located in the mountains of what is now Tajikistan. It was visited by Alexander the Great during his campaigns in Central Asia, and it was one of the most challenging military operations he faced.
The Sogdian Rock was a formidable fortress, and it was held by a group of determined defenders who were determined to resist Alexander’s army. Despite the difficulties posed by the fortress’ location and the skill of its defenders, Alexander was eventually able to take the Sogdian Rock through a combination of military tactics and negotiations.
Alexander’s successful capture of the Sogdian Rock was a significant achievement and marked an important milestone in his campaigns in Central Asia. The fortress was strategically important and allowed Alexander to secure his hold over the surrounding territories and advance further east.
The Sogdian Rock remains an important part of Central Asian history, and Alexander’s visit to the fortress continues to be remembered and celebrated. It is a testament to his military prowess and leadership skills, and serves as a reminder of the challenges he faced and overcame during his campaigns in the region.
Submission or Respect: Practicing Proskynesis
Proskynesis was a custom in the Persian Empire that involved the act of prostrating oneself before a superior or deity as a sign of respect and worship. It was a common practice among the Persian people and was adopted by the ruling Achaemenid dynasty.
Under the Achaemenid Empire, the custom of proskynesis was extended to all subject peoples, including those from the Greek-speaking world. It was seen as a way of expressing the submission of subject peoples to the rule of the Persian king, and it was also used as a means of demonstrating respect for the gods.
When Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire, he encountered the practice of proskynesis and adopted it as a way of showing respect to the Persian kings who had preceded him. This decision was controversial among his Greek and Macedonian followers, who saw it as a sign of submission to the Persian Empire.
The practice of proskynesis eventually faded away over time, but it remains an important part of the history of the ancient world and is remembered as a symbol of the relationship between the Persian Empire and its subject peoples. Today, it is studied by historians and archaeologists as a way of understanding the cultural and political dynamics of the ancient world.
Roxane
Alexander the Great and Roxane were married in 327 BCE, during Alexander’s campaigns in Central Asia. Roxane was the daughter of a local nobleman from the Bactrian tribe and was considered to be one of the most beautiful women of her time.
The marriage was arranged as a political alliance, but it was also said to have been a love match. Despite the cultural differences between the two, Alexander and Roxane were said to have been deeply in love and their marriage was reportedly a happy one.
Roxane accompanied Alexander on his campaigns, and she gave birth to their son, Alexander IV, after Alexander’s death. After Alexander’s death, Roxane played a significant role in the politics of the empire, and she was known for her cunning and resourcefulness.
The relationship between Alexander the Great and Roxane remains a subject of fascination and continues to be remembered and celebrated. It is seen as an example of the blending of cultures and the power of love to overcome differences, and serves as a testament to the strength and beauty of their bond.
No First Amendment: The Death of Callisthenes
Callisthenes was a Greek historian and philosopher who was part of Alexander the Great’s entourage during his campaigns. Callisthenes was a respected scholar and was known for his critical views of the Macedonian conqueror.
Callisthenes was an outspoken critic of Alexander’s attempts to adopt Persian customs, including the practice of proskynesis. He believed that such customs were incompatible with Greek values and that they represented a threat to the independence of the Greek-speaking world.
Alexander took offense to Callisthenes’ criticism and views, and eventually ordered his execution. The exact circumstances of Callisthenes’ death remain unclear, but it is believed that he was either executed or died while in captivity.
The death of Callisthenes was a significant event in the history of the ancient world and is remembered as an example of the danger posed by political dissent and criticism. It also serves as a reminder of the complex cultural and political dynamics of the time, and the challenges faced by Alexander and his followers as they sought to maintain control over a vast and diverse empire.
Hephaestion Goes to Gandara
Hephaestion was the closest friend and companion of Alexander the Great and was one of the most trusted members of his inner circle. During Alexander’s campaigns in India, Hephaestion was sent to conquer the city of Gandara, which was located in what is now Pakistan.
The conquest of Gandara was a difficult and bloody affair, and Hephaestion faced significant resistance from the local population. Despite these challenges, he was eventually able to take the city and secure control over the surrounding territories.
Hephaestion’s successful conquest of Gandara was seen as a significant achievement and was celebrated by Alexander and his army. It was a testament to Hephaestion’s military skills and leadership abilities, and it cemented his reputation as one of Alexander’s most trusted and capable commanders.
The conquest of Gandara remains an important part of the history of Alexander’s campaigns in India, and Hephaestion’s role in the operation is still remembered and celebrated. It is a reminder of the challenges faced by Alexander and his army as they sought to expand their empire and maintain control over the territories they conquered.
Valley So Low
Alexander the Great conquered the Swat Valley, which is located in present-day Pakistan, during his campaigns in India. The valley was inhabited by a number of warlike tribes, and Alexander’s forces faced significant resistance as they attempted to conquer the region.
Despite these challenges, Alexander was eventually able to secure control over the Swat Valley and its surrounding territories. He used the valley as a base of operations for further campaigns in India and as a means of consolidating his control over the region.
The conquest of the Swat Valley was a significant achievement for Alexander, as it allowed him to extend his control over a key region in India and to secure a strategic foothold in the region. It was also seen as a demonstration of his military prowess and leadership abilities, and it helped to establish his reputation as one of the greatest conquerors of all time.
Today, the Swat Valley is still remembered as an important part of Alexander’s legacy, and it continues to be celebrated as a symbol of his remarkable military achievements and leadership abilities.
Okay, One More Rock
Alexander the Great encountered the Aornus Rock during his campaigns in what is now northern Pakistan. Aornus was a massive fortress built into a towering cliff, and it was said to be impregnable. The local inhabitants considered the fortress to be sacred, and they believed that no one could ever capture it.
Alexander was determined to conquer the Aornus Rock and prove that it was not invulnerable. He ordered his engineers to build a ramp to the top of the cliff, and he led his army in a brutal siege of the fortress. Despite fierce resistance from the defenders, Alexander’s forces eventually succeeded in breaching the walls and capturing the fortress.
The conquest of the Aornus Rock was a significant achievement for Alexander and was seen as a demonstration of his military prowess and leadership abilities. It was also a testament to the skill and ingenuity of his engineers, who were able to construct a ramp that allowed his army to reach the top of the towering cliff.
The Aornus Rock remains an important part of Alexander’s legacy, and it is still remembered as one of his greatest conquests.
The Wealth of Taxila
Alexander the Great arrived at the city of Taxila in what is now northwestern Pakistan during his campaigns in India. Taxila was a wealthy and important center of commerce and culture, and it was one of the largest cities in the region.
Alexander’s forces faced significant resistance from the local population as they attempted to conquer Taxila, but eventually, the city was captured and its citizens were forced to submit to Alexander’s rule. After the conquest of Taxila, Alexander established a strong military presence in the city, which he used as a base of operations for further campaigns in India.
The conquest of Taxila was a significant achievement for Alexander and helped to extend his control over a key region in India. It was also seen as a demonstration of his military prowess and leadership abilities, and it helped to establish his reputation as one of the greatest conquerors of all time.
Porus in India: Conquest at the Battle of the Hydaspes
The Battle of the Hydaspes was a major military engagement that took place between Alexander the Great and King Porus of India in 326 BCE. The battle was fought near the Jhelum River in what is now modern-day Pakistan.
Alexander’s army faced significant resistance from King Porus and his forces, but eventually, Alexander emerged victorious. The battle was one of the largest and most intense that Alexander faced during his campaigns in India, and it was seen as a testament to his military prowess and leadership abilities.
After the battle, Alexander treated King Porus with respect and honored the terms of their agreement. Porus became a loyal ally of Alexander and was appointed as a governor of the region, which helped to establish Alexander’s control over the region and extend his influence in India.
The Battle of the Acesines and the Mallians
The Battle of the Acesines was fought by Alexander the Great during his campaigns in India. The battle took place on the banks of the Acesines River, which is now believed to be the modern-day Chenab River in Pakistan.
Alexander’s forces faced significant resistance from the local population, who were led by a powerful Indian king named Porus. However, Alexander emerged victorious, and the battle was seen as a significant military achievement.
Alexander the Great and the Mallians were involved in a military conflict during Alexander’s campaigns in India. The Mallians were a tribe located in the region of Punjab, in what is now modern-day Pakistan, and they were known for their fierce resistance to foreign invaders.
When Alexander and his army arrived in the region, the Mallians refused to surrender and instead put up a strong resistance. The conflict between Alexander and the Mallians was one of the most intense battles that Alexander faced during his campaigns in India, and it was seen as a significant military challenge.
After his victory, he showed mercy to the defeated Mallians and treated them with respect, which helped to establish his dominance over the region and solidify his power in India.
Take Us Home!: Mutiny at the Hyphasis
The Mutiny at the Hyphasis was a pivotal moment in the career of Alexander the Great. After several years of successful military campaigns in Asia, Alexander and his army reached the Hyphasis River in what is now modern-day India.
However, the soldiers were exhausted and many were eager to return home. When Alexander announced that he intended to continue his campaign further into India, the soldiers mutinied and refused to follow him. This was the first time in Alexander’s career that his army had openly defied him, and it was a significant challenge to his leadership.
Alexander was faced with a difficult decision: whether to continue his campaign and risk losing the loyalty of his soldiers, or to return home and abandon his plans to conquer India. In the end, Alexander decided to return to Persia, and the Mutiny at the Hyphasis marked the end of his campaign in India.
The Mutiny at the Hyphasis is still remembered as a significant moment in the career of Alexander the Great, and it serves as a reminder of the challenges faced by military leaders as they seek to maintain the loyalty and support of their soldiers. It is a testament to the complexity of the ancient world and to the difficulties faced by Alexander and his army as they sought to expand their empire and maintain control over the territories they conquered.
The Brahman Rebellion: Fighting the Priests
The Brahman Rebellion was a conflict that took place between Alexander the Great and the Brahmans, a powerful Hindu priestly caste, during his campaigns in India. The Brahmans were known for their religious and cultural influence in the region, and they were deeply opposed to Alexander’s efforts to conquer their lands.
The conflict between Alexander and the Brahmans was a significant challenge for Alexander, who faced intense resistance from the local population. The Brahmans were well-organized and led a fierce rebellion against Alexander and his army, which resulted in several violent clashes.
Alexander was lenient with the defeated Brahmans, and he sought to integrate them into his empire by establishing a policy of tolerance and respect for their culture and religion.
Tough Journey through Gedrosia
Alexander the Great’s journey through Gedrosia, a region located in what is now modern-day Iran, was one of the most difficult and dangerous portions of his campaigns. Gedrosia was known for its harsh terrain, which included vast deserts, rugged mountains, and scorching heat.
Alexander and his army encountered numerous challenges as they made their way through Gedrosia, including a lack of supplies, disease, and attacks from local tribes. Despite these challenges, Alexander pressed on, determined to reach the end of his journey and establish his control over the region.
One of the most significant events of Alexander’s journey through Gedrosia was the loss of a significant portion of his army, including many of his soldiers, as well as their supplies and equipment. This was a major setback for Alexander, who was forced to continue his journey with fewer resources and a diminished army.
Despite the challenges, Alexander and his army eventually made it through Gedrosia and emerged on the other side, where they were able to regroup and continue their conquests.
Punitive Action against the Satraps
Alexander the Great’s punishment of the satraps refers to the actions taken by Alexander to maintain control and order among the various governors (satrapies) of the territories that he conquered during his campaigns. The satraps were appointed by Alexander to govern the territories and maintain order in his absence, but some of them became corrupt and abusive in their power, leading to unrest and rebellion in the territories they governed.
To maintain order and control, Alexander took a number of actions against the satraps who had become corrupt or abusive in their power. Some of these actions included fines, imprisonment, and even execution in severe cases. Alexander also established a system of checks and balances to prevent future abuse, including the appointment of inspectors who would monitor the actions of the satraps and report any wrongdoing.
Alexander’s punishment of the satraps was seen as a necessary measure to maintain control and order in the territories he had conquered. It served as a warning to other satraps to govern their territories responsibly and maintain the loyalty of their subjects.
Impressed by Cyrus at Pasargadae
Pasargadae was an ancient city located in what is now Iran and was the first capital of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. Alexander the Great visited Pasargadae during his campaigns in the Persian Empire, and he was said to have been deeply impressed by the city and its monuments.
One of the most significant monuments in Pasargadae was the tomb of Cyrus the Great, which was considered to be one of the most impressive architectural achievements of its time. Alexander is said to have shown great reverence for the tomb, and he even ordered his soldiers to pay their respects to the former Persian king.
Alexander’s visit to Pasargadae is often seen as an important moment in his campaigns, as it highlights his respect for the cultural heritage of the peoples he conquered. He demonstrated a willingness to embrace and preserve the traditions of the conquered peoples, which helped to win over the loyalty of the local populations and maintain stability in the territories he conquered.
Today, Pasargadae is considered to be an important archaeological site and is protected as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It remains a popular tourist destination and a symbol of Alexander’s respect for the cultural heritage of the Persian Empire.
Calanus: A Philosopher’s Immolation
The death of Calanus, also known as Kalanos, was an event that took place during Alexander the Great’s campaign in India. Calanus was a Hindu philosopher who had joined Alexander’s court and became a close advisor to the king.
According to historical accounts, Calanus had grown tired of the materialistic life of the court and wished to return to his spiritual practices. He is said to have set himself on fire in front of Alexander and his court as a final act of renunciation.
Alexander was deeply affected by Calanus’ death and is said to have mourned his loss as a great philosopher and spiritual guide. The death of Calanus became a symbol of the philosophical and cultural differences between the East and West and has been remembered as an important moment in Alexander’s campaigns in India.
Today, the death of Calanus is considered to be an important historical event and is studied by scholars as a symbol of the encounter between East and West. It remains a symbol of the cultural exchange that took place during Alexander’s campaigns and serves as a testament to the lasting impact of his travels and conquests.
Bringing Exiles Back
[18.8.2] Not long before his death Alexander decided to bring back all the exiles in the Greek cities, partly to increase his own glory and partly to have in each city many personal supporters to counteract the risk of revolution and revolt among the Greeks.
Diodorus
Alexander the Great issued a decree regarding the exiles in his empire during his campaigns and conquest of the Persian Empire. The decree provided for the return of exiles who had fled the previous Persian regime and granted them the right to reclaim their property and possessions.
Alexander’s decree on the exiles was part of his larger policy of reconciliation and integration of the conquered territories into his empire. He aimed to create a sense of unity among the diverse peoples of the empire and to establish a stable and harmonious administration.
The decree on the exiles was well received by the people and was seen as a sign of Alexander’s magnanimity and generosity. It helped to secure his position as ruler of the newly conquered territories and contributed to the stability and prosperity of his empire.
Today, Alexander’s decree on the exiles is considered to be an important historical document and is studied by scholars for its significance in the history of the ancient world. It serves as a testament to Alexander’s vision for the integration of conquered territories into his empire and remains an important part of the legacy of his campaigns and conquests.
Really, Take Us Home!: Mutiny at Opis
The Mutiny at Opis was a significant event in the later stages of Alexander the Great’s campaigns in the Persian Empire. After a series of successful battles and conquests, Alexander and his army arrived in the city of Opis, located in what is now Iraq.
The soldiers of Alexander’s army, who had been away from their homes for several years and had faced numerous battles and hardships, were exhausted and disgruntled. Tensions rose when Alexander announced his plans to further expand his empire into India and to continue his military campaigns.
In response, a significant portion of Alexander’s army, including many of the veterans and high-ranking officers, staged a mutiny and refused to continue the campaign. They demanded that Alexander allow them to return home and retire from military service.
Alexander responded harshly to the mutiny, ordering the execution of several of the ringleaders and holding a parade to demonstrate his authority over the army. The Mutiny at Opis had a lasting impact on Alexander’s army, causing a rift between him and his soldiers and fueling concerns about the future of his empire.
No Resistance at Ecbatana
Ecbatana was a strategic and wealthy city, and its capture was a significant victory for Alexander and his army.
Upon arriving in Ecbatana, Alexander was greeted by the city’s governor, who surrendered the city to him without resistance. Alexander then took control of the city and its treasure, which included significant amounts of gold and silver.
Alexander used his time in Ecbatana to rest and regroup his army, as well as to negotiate with the local rulers and leaders of the surrounding territories. He also established a new administrative center in the city, which helped to strengthen his control over the conquered territories.
Despite its strategic and economic importance, Alexander’s stay in Ecbatana was short-lived. After a few months, he continued his campaigns and moved on to the next city on his list of conquests.
The Death of Hephaestion: Deep Mourning and Public Grief
The death of Hephaestion is said to have had a profound impact on Alexander, who was devastated by the loss of his close friend and trusted advisor. According to historical accounts, Alexander is said to have shown intense grief at the news of Hephaestion’s death and is said to have mourned him for several days.
The cause of Hephaestion’s death is not entirely clear, but it is believed that he may have died from a fever or an infection. Some accounts suggest that Hephaestion may have been poisoned, but there is no solid evidence to support this theory.
Regardless of the cause, the death of Hephaestion was a significant event in the life of Alexander the Great and had far-reaching consequences for both Alexander and the empire he had created. Alexander’s grief at the loss of his friend is said to have contributed to his declining health and eventual death, and the loss of Hephaestion is considered to be one of the defining moments in Alexander’s life.
Babylon: The End Draws Near
Alexander the Great arrived in Babylon in the year 331 BCE, as part of his conquests in the Persian Empire. Babylon was one of the largest and most important cities in the ancient world, and was a symbol of wealth and power.
Alexander’s arrival in Babylon was greeted with a mix of excitement and fear, as the city’s residents were unsure of what to expect from the conqueror. However, Alexander was welcomed into the city with open arms, and he quickly set about consolidating his control over the region.
One of Alexander’s first actions in Babylon was to commission the rebuilding of the city’s famous hanging gardens, which were considered one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. He also initiated a number of reforms and improvements to the city, including the construction of new roads and public buildings.
Alexander spent several years in Babylon, and the city became a major center of his empire. During this time, he is said to have held a number of important meetings and gatherings, including the famous assembly of the diadochi, in which he announced his plans for the division of his empire among his generals.
The End of Alexander
Alexander the Great died on June 10 or 11, 323 BC, in Babylon, in what is now modern-day Iraq. The exact cause of his death is unknown and the subject of much speculation.
According to some accounts, Alexander died from a fever after a prolonged illness, while others suggest that he was poisoned. Despite numerous investigations, no definitive evidence has been found to confirm either theory.
At the time of his death, Alexander was just 32 years old and had established one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to India. His death came as a shock to the world and marked the end of an era.
Alexander’s empire was quickly divided among his generals, who became known as the Diadochi, and his death signaled the beginning of a period of political instability and warfare that lasted for several decades.
The Beginning of the Hellenistic Era
The Hellenistic Era was a period in ancient history that lasted from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC to the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BC. This era was characterized by the spread of Greek culture and influence across the Mediterranean world, as well as the rise of powerful Hellenistic kingdoms in Egypt, Syria, and Pergamon.
The Hellenistic Era saw the fusion of Greek, Persian, and Egyptian cultures, leading to the creation of a unique and diverse civilization. This era was marked by a time of great scientific, cultural, and artistic achievements, with advances in mathematics, astronomy, literature, and the visual arts.
During the Hellenistic Era, many cities were founded or renamed with a Greek name and given a Greek-style organization, with a gymnasium, theater, and marketplace. This era also saw the rise of great philosophers, such as the Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics, who had a significant impact on Western thought and philosophy.
In terms of politics, the Hellenistic Era was characterized by the struggle for power among the various Hellenistic kingdoms and the rise of large standing armies. This period also saw the growth of diplomacy, with the development of treaties, envoys, and ambassador posts, which helped to spread Greek culture and influence across the Mediterranean world.
The Hellenistic Era was a crucial period in the development of the ancient world and had a lasting impact on Western civilization. Its legacy can still be seen today in fields such as science, art, philosophy, and politics.
Originally published by Brewminate under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license.