Smoke and Steam: The Industrial Revolution and Anthropogenic Climate Change

**The Crystal Palace housed the Great Exhibition of 1851. / Courtesy Victoria and Albert Museum, Wikimedia Commons**

The Industrial Revolution was a turning point in Earth’s environmental history.

By Matthew A. McIntosh
Public Historian
Brewminate

Introduction

The Industrial Revolution, a profound transformation in human society and economic systems that began in the late 18th century and extended through the 19th century, marks a critical juncture in the history of climate change. Before this period, human activities had relatively limited impacts on the Earth’s climate system. However, the Industrial Revolution ushered in an era of mechanization, urbanization, and unprecedented reliance on fossil fuels, laying the foundation for the modern climate crisis. This essay explores how the Industrial Revolution initiated significant changes in atmospheric composition, examines the early scientific understanding of these transformations, and assesses the long-term environmental consequences that have become increasingly evident in the 21st century.

An Overview of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a transformative period in human history that began in Great Britain around the mid-eighteenth century and gradually spread to continental Europe, North America, and eventually much of the world. It marked the transition from agrarian economies based on manual labor and traditional craftsmanship to mechanized and industrialized societies. The development of new machinery, such as James Hargreaves’ spinning jenny and Richard Arkwright’s water frame, revolutionized textile production, allowing for goods to be manufactured on a scale previously unimaginable.¹ This mechanization catalyzed a shift from rural to urban life as workers moved to burgeoning factory towns. The agricultural surplus generated by improved farming techniques and tools also enabled a growing labor force to concentrate in industrial centers, fueling rapid urbanization.²

**The model Newcomen engine upon which James Watt experimented. / Courtesy Wikimedia Commons**

Central to this transformation was the exploitation of new sources of energy, especially coal. The steam engine, refined by James Watt in the 1760s and 1770s, became a linchpin of the industrial economy by powering machinery, locomotives, and ships.³ The widespread use of coal and steam significantly increased productivity and facilitated the expansion of industries such as iron, steel, textiles, and transportation. Britain’s abundant coal reserves, accessible waterways, and political stability made it a natural incubator for industrial innovation.⁴ Infrastructure developments, including canals and railways, linked industrial centers with ports and raw materials, creating an integrated economic system that spurred national and international trade.

The social consequences of the Industrial Revolution were profound and often disruptive. The emergence of a new industrial working class brought about significant changes in labor conditions, family structures, and daily life. While some workers found new opportunities and a modest rise in living standards, many endured harsh conditions in factories with long hours, low wages, and minimal protections.⁵ Child labor was widespread, and women’s participation in industrial work introduced new complexities in gender roles and domestic life. The contrast between the wealthy industrial bourgeoisie and the impoverished laboring classes gave rise to early socialist thought and reform movements. Intellectuals like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels critiqued the capitalist system born from industrialization as exploitative and dehumanizing.⁶

Technological innovation during this era not only transformed economies but also reshaped intellectual and cultural life. The Industrial Revolution inspired both admiration for progress and anxiety about its consequences. Writers and artists grappled with themes of alienation, mechanization, and the loss of traditional ways of life.⁷ At the same time, the burgeoning field of economics sought to understand and rationalize the new market forces at play, as exemplified in the works of Adam Smith and later classical economists. Education, literacy, and scientific inquiry expanded as industrial societies sought to train skilled workers and develop new knowledge to fuel further progress.⁸ However, the environmental degradation that accompanied industrial growth—air pollution, deforestation, and water contamination—was largely ignored during this period, setting the stage for later ecological challenges.

The Industrial Revolution represents a watershed moment in global history. It redefined the nature of work, accelerated technological advancement, and laid the foundation for modern capitalism and the global economy. Though it began in Britain, its influence was worldwide, catalyzing industrialization in Europe, the Americas, and parts of Asia by the late nineteenth century.⁹ The revolution also exacerbated global inequalities, as industrialized nations exploited colonial territories for raw materials and markets. By fundamentally altering the relationship between humans, labor, and the environment, the Industrial Revolution not only reshaped economies but also inaugurated a new era in human civilization that continues to influence the present.¹⁰

Fossil Fuels and the Carbon Footprint of Industrialization

**Chinese coal miners in an illustration of the *Tiangong Kaiwu* Ming Dynasty encyclopedia, published in 1637 by Song Yingxing. / Courtesy Wikimedia Commons**

The Industrial Revolution marked a pivotal shift in energy consumption, ushering in an era dominated by fossil fuels—particularly coal. Before industrialization, most societies relied on organic sources of energy such as wood, wind, and animal labor. However, the inefficiencies and limitations of these sources could not sustain the demands of mechanized production. Coal emerged as the cornerstone of industrial energy due to its high energy density and relative abundance in Britain. The transition to coal-powered machinery allowed for continuous and scalable production, catalyzing economic growth and technological innovation.¹¹ The increasing use of coal not only fueled steam engines but also revolutionized iron smelting, creating stronger, more abundant materials that underpinned railway and factory construction. This dependence on fossil fuels initiated a trajectory of carbon-intensive development that continues today.

The burning of coal during the Industrial Revolution resulted in the first significant human-driven increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂). While exact emissions are difficult to calculate retroactively, historians and climatologists agree that the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a measurable uptick in greenhouse gases.¹² Coal combustion releases large quantities of CO₂, a potent greenhouse gas that accumulates in the atmosphere and contributes to global warming by trapping infrared radiation. Though the scale of early industrial emissions was small compared to today’s figures, they represent the genesis of anthropogenic climate change. These early emissions set a precedent that industrialized nations would follow and expand upon, laying the groundwork for the environmental challenges facing the modern world.¹³

The steam engine exemplifies how fossil fuels became inextricably linked to industrial expansion. Perfected by James Watt in the late 18th century, the steam engine revolutionized transportation and manufacturing.¹⁴ Steam-powered locomotives and ships connected cities, ports, and markets, accelerating the movement of goods and people. This expansion required an immense and continuous supply of coal, reinforcing the cycle of fossil fuel dependency. Factories running day and night burned coal to maintain output, while entire regions, particularly in northern England and the Ruhr Valley in Germany, were transformed into industrial hubs marked by smoke-choked skies and polluted rivers. The efficiency gains of steam technology were undeniable, but they came at the cost of significant environmental degradation and an escalating carbon footprint.

In addition to CO₂, the Industrial Revolution introduced other pollutants that further altered the atmosphere and human health. Sulfur dioxide, soot, and other particulates were emitted in large quantities, contributing to the infamous smog that plagued cities like London and Manchester.¹⁵ These pollutants had immediate effects—such as respiratory illnesses and reduced visibility—but also long-term climatic impacts, including atmospheric warming and acid rain. Deforestation to support coal mining and urban expansion reduced the planet’s capacity to absorb CO₂, compounding the problem.¹⁶ Yet, despite these consequences, fossil fuels became central to industrial economies. The success of coal as an energy source led to the later adoption of oil and natural gas, further expanding the global carbon footprint into the 20th century and beyond.

The legacy of fossil fuel use during the Industrial Revolution continues to influence contemporary climate discussions. Industrial-era emissions may appear negligible compared to today’s outputs, but they represent a critical threshold—the point at which human activity began altering the Earth’s climate system at scale.¹⁷ Moreover, the patterns of energy consumption and economic growth established in the 19th century became models for industrialization around the world. The environmental consequences of this model were largely unacknowledged at the time, as industrialists prioritized economic gain over ecological stewardship. Today, climate scientists and historians recognize that the Industrial Revolution’s dependence on fossil fuels was not only a technological and economic turning point but also the beginning of a long-term planetary transformation.¹⁸ Understanding this historical foundation is essential for developing sustainable alternatives and mitigating future climate risks.

Early Observations and Scientific Understanding

**Portrait of Joseph Fourier / Courtesy Wellcome Collection, Wikimedia Commons**

The Industrial Revolution not only transformed economies and societies but also spurred the first scientific inquiries into the relationship between human activity and the Earth’s climate. Although the concept of climate change as understood today was not yet developed, early scientists began to observe and theorize about the impact of industrial pollution and atmospheric alterations. The widespread burning of coal produced visible smoke and soot that darkened urban skies and coated buildings, leading some observers to speculate on the broader environmental consequences.¹⁹ Early natural philosophers and chemists noticed the changes in air quality and sought to understand the composition of the atmosphere, laying the groundwork for later climate science.

One of the foundational figures in the early scientific study of the atmosphere was Joseph Fourier, a French mathematician and physicist. In the 1820s, Fourier articulated the idea that the Earth’s atmosphere acts like a greenhouse, trapping heat and thereby regulating the planet’s temperature.²⁰ He proposed that certain gases in the air could retain heat and influence climate, although the full implications of this greenhouse effect would only be appreciated much later. Fourier’s work represented a critical step in linking atmospheric composition with climate phenomena and suggested that changes in the atmosphere, natural or anthropogenic, could affect global temperatures.

Building on Fourier’s ideas, John Tyndall, an Irish physicist, conducted experiments in the 1850s and 1860s to measure the infrared absorption properties of various gases.²¹ Tyndall discovered that gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO₂) strongly absorb heat radiation, which confirmed that these gases play an essential role in the Earth’s thermal regulation. Importantly, Tyndall was among the first to suggest that increases in CO₂ levels from burning fossil fuels could alter the Earth’s climate. His research hinted at a possible link between industrial emissions and atmospheric warming, though this concept remained largely speculative at the time.

Toward the end of the 19th century, the understanding of climate began to incorporate the potential long-term effects of industrialization. Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish chemist, was the first to quantitatively estimate how increases in atmospheric CO₂ could raise global temperatures. In 1896, Arrhenius published calculations suggesting that a doubling of CO₂ concentration could lead to a significant temperature increase, essentially predicting anthropogenic global warming.²² His work introduced the idea that human activity, through fossil fuel combustion, could influence climate on a planetary scale. Despite the groundbreaking nature of this insight, Arrhenius’ conclusions were met with skepticism and did not gain widespread attention until decades later.

Despite these early scientific advances, the broader public and many policymakers remained largely unaware of the potential for industrialization to induce climate change. Environmental degradation was often viewed as a local nuisance rather than a global issue, and the fossil fuel-driven economic model was regarded as a hallmark of progress.²³ Nonetheless, the pioneering observations and experiments of Fourier, Tyndall, and Arrhenius established the essential scientific principles underpinning modern climate science. Their work laid the foundation for 20th- and 21st-century research, which would confirm and expand upon the links between industrial activity, greenhouse gas emissions, and global warming.

Urbanization and Environmental Degradation

**Photograph of Widnes in the late 19th century showing the effects of industrial pollution. / Courtesy Wikimedia Commons**

The Industrial Revolution triggered unprecedented urbanization as millions of people migrated from rural areas to cities in search of employment in factories and industrial enterprises. This rapid population shift led to the explosive growth of urban centers, particularly in Britain, where cities like Manchester, Liverpool, and London expanded dramatically within a few decades.²⁴ The influx of workers overwhelmed existing infrastructure, and many cities grew faster than authorities could plan or regulate. The resulting urban environments were often overcrowded, with inadequate housing, sanitation, and public health systems. These conditions contributed to severe social problems, including poverty, disease outbreaks, and high mortality rates.²⁵

The environmental consequences of such rapid urbanization were equally profound. Industrial cities became centers of pollution, with coal-fired factories and steam engines pumping vast amounts of smoke and soot into the atmosphere.²⁶ Air pollution reached hazardous levels, particularly during the winter months when coal burning increased for heating. London’s infamous “pea-souper” smogs, thick with sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, caused respiratory illnesses and even premature deaths.²⁷ Rivers and waterways were similarly affected; industrial waste, sewage, and chemicals were frequently dumped untreated into urban rivers, leading to contamination of drinking water and the spread of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid.²⁸

The degradation of urban environments extended beyond air and water pollution. Rapid industrial expansion also demanded large quantities of natural resources, driving deforestation and land conversion around cities. Woodlands were cleared for timber, fuel, and to make way for factories and worker housing.²⁹ Soil erosion and loss of green spaces contributed to deteriorating living conditions and reduced urban resilience to flooding and other environmental hazards. Waste management systems lagged behind population growth, and open dumps or incineration of refuse were common, releasing additional toxins into the environment.³⁰ Such environmental stresses underscored the complex relationship between industrial growth and urban sustainability.

Despite the evident environmental degradation, industrial cities also became centers of innovation in public health and urban planning. The dire conditions of the mid-19th century prompted reforms such as the establishment of sewer systems, clean water supply projects, and regulations to reduce pollution.³¹ The work of public health pioneers like Edwin Chadwick and John Snow, who linked poor sanitation to disease outbreaks, led to infrastructure investments that gradually improved urban living conditions.³² However, these improvements often lagged behind urban growth and were limited in scope, as economic priorities frequently outweighed environmental or social concerns. Industrial capitalism, focused on production and profit, tended to marginalize environmental health until the consequences became impossible to ignore.

The environmental degradation and urban challenges of the Industrial Revolution had lasting impacts that extended well beyond the 19th century. They highlighted the unintended consequences of rapid industrialization and the need for coordinated governance to balance economic development with public health and environmental protection.³³ These historical experiences shaped later urban policy and environmental movements, influencing 20th-century efforts to manage pollution, regulate industry, and promote sustainable city planning. The legacy of industrial-era urbanization serves as a cautionary tale about the costs of unchecked growth and the critical importance of integrating environmental considerations into urban development.

The Long-Term Climatic Legacy

A picture of Earth’s troposphere, with different cloud types at low and high altitudes casting shadows. Sunlight, filtered into a reddish hue by passing through much of the troposphere at sunset, is reflected off the ocean. The above-lying stratosphere can be seen at the horizon as a band of its characteristic glow of blue scattered sunlight. / Courtesy NASA, Wikimedia Commons

The Industrial Revolution marked the beginning of a profound and lasting transformation in the Earth’s climate system. Before the late 18th century, human influence on the global climate was relatively modest, but the widespread adoption of fossil fuels—especially coal—during industrialization initiated an era of sustained greenhouse gas emissions.¹⁴ Carbon dioxide (CO₂) levels, which had remained relatively stable for thousands of years, began to climb as factories, transportation networks, and later, electricity production became powered by coal and, eventually, oil and natural gas.³⁴ This initial acceleration in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations laid the foundation for the modern climate crisis, setting in motion a feedback loop of warming temperatures, melting ice, and shifting weather patterns that continues to the present day.

The long-term climatic legacy of the Industrial Revolution can be measured in both atmospheric data and physical impacts on the environment. Ice core records from Antarctica and Greenland show a marked increase in greenhouse gas concentrations beginning in the late 18th and early 19th centuries—directly correlating with the onset of industrialization.³⁵ This data confirms that the Industrial Revolution was a turning point, not only for human development but also for the Earth’s natural systems. Global temperatures began to rise gradually in the 19th century and have continued to increase more sharply in the 20th and 21st centuries. The cumulative effect of two centuries of fossil fuel combustion has fundamentally altered the Earth’s climate equilibrium.³⁶

This legacy is not limited to global warming alone. Industrial-era activities also contributed to large-scale environmental transformations such as deforestation, urban heat islands, and altered precipitation patterns.³⁷ The clearing of land for mining and industrial agriculture not only released additional carbon into the atmosphere but also reduced the Earth’s capacity to reabsorb it. Moreover, soot and particulate matter from early industrial emissions contributed to changes in atmospheric albedo—how much sunlight the Earth reflects—thereby influencing regional climates, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.³⁸ Industrial pollutants, including sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, also led to acid rain and other forms of environmental degradation, compounding the climate-related consequences of industrialization.

The legacy of the Industrial Revolution is especially visible in the concept of the Anthropocene, a proposed geological epoch defined by significant human impact on Earth’s geology and ecosystems.³⁹ While the term is still under scientific debate, many scholars agree that the Industrial Revolution represents the beginning of this epoch. It was the moment when human activity, driven by industrial energy consumption, began to exert a dominant force on planetary systems. The long-term consequences include not only a warmer climate but also rising sea levels, ecosystem collapse, and increasingly severe weather events—phenomena that threaten both human societies and the natural world in the centuries to come.⁴⁰

In summary, the Industrial Revolution initiated a trajectory of environmental change with far-reaching and long-lasting climatic effects. What began as a revolution in manufacturing and energy consumption evolved into an enduring transformation of the Earth’s atmosphere and biosphere. The CO₂ released during the 19th century remains in the atmosphere today, continuing to drive climate change.⁴¹ Understanding this historical origin is critical for developing effective climate policy and mitigation strategies in the present. It serves as a stark reminder that the benefits of industrial progress came with profound environmental costs—costs that humanity is only now beginning to fully reckon with.

Environmental Awareness and Modern Reassessment

In the centuries following the Industrial Revolution, environmental awareness evolved slowly, initially overshadowed by the economic and technological triumphs of industrialization. During the 19th century, few contemporaries considered the long-term environmental impacts of industrial progress. However, as industrial pollution became more visible and detrimental—manifesting in the form of smog, contaminated rivers, and public health crises—a small number of critics began to question the unchecked growth of industry. Early conservationist voices such as George Perkins Marsh, whose seminal 1864 work Man and Nature argued that human actions were altering the environment with dangerous consequences, marked the beginning of environmental consciousness.⁴² Marsh’s ideas, though not widely accepted at the time, laid the groundwork for later environmental thought and illustrated the need to reevaluate the ecological dimensions of industrialization.

By the mid-20th century, environmental awareness had grown significantly, fueled by the evident degradation of landscapes and ecosystems caused by two centuries of industrial activity. The publication of Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring in 1962 marked a turning point in public discourse, linking industrial chemicals to environmental and health hazards.⁴³ This book, along with increasing concerns about air and water pollution, contributed to the rise of modern environmentalism. Governments began to implement policies to curb industrial emissions and protect natural resources, leading to legislation like the U.S. Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act in the 1970s.⁴⁴ In this new context, historians and environmental scholars revisited the Industrial Revolution not just as a period of economic development, but as the origin of systemic environmental degradation that had reached a critical point by the 20th century.

Modern reassessments of the Industrial Revolution have increasingly emphasized its ecological costs alongside its economic and technological achievements. Environmental historians now highlight the Revolution’s role in initiating the Anthropocene—a proposed epoch in which human activity is the dominant force shaping Earth’s systems.⁴⁵ The increased use of fossil fuels, industrial deforestation, and large-scale pollution during this period are now seen as foundational to the planet’s current climate crisis.⁴⁶ The earlier narrative of industrialization as a linear march toward progress has been complicated by the recognition that such development often came at great ecological expense, particularly for marginalized communities who bore the brunt of environmental harm.

This reassessment has led to growing interest in integrating environmental justice into the historical analysis of industrialization. Studies now examine how pollution, toxic waste, and occupational hazards disproportionately affected the working class, women, and children—groups with limited power to resist or escape harmful conditions.⁴⁷ These perspectives challenge earlier histories that celebrated industrial leaders while overlooking the human and environmental costs of their enterprises. Moreover, the global spread of industrial practices has prompted historians to examine how colonial and post-colonial systems exported environmental degradation to resource-rich but politically weak regions, further complicating the legacy of the Industrial Revolution.⁴⁸ Environmental awareness thus encourages a more critical and inclusive interpretation of this pivotal period in human history.

Today, the Industrial Revolution serves as both a symbol of human ingenuity and a cautionary tale about unintended consequences. Its environmental legacy continues to shape contemporary debates about sustainable development, climate change, and the limits of economic growth. As societies seek to transition toward greener economies, understanding the roots of ecological degradation in the industrial era becomes essential.⁴⁹ The modern reassessment of the Industrial Revolution helps inform policies and attitudes that prioritize environmental stewardship while grappling with the historical systems that led to current crises. It underscores the imperative to learn from history—not only to recognize past mistakes but to build a future that balances innovation with ecological responsibility.

Conclusion

The Industrial Revolution was a turning point not only in human history but also in Earth’s environmental history. It initiated the large-scale burning of fossil fuels, triggered significant emissions of greenhouse gases, and began altering the planet’s climate system in ways that were not understood at the time. While its immediate effects brought economic and social advancements, its long-term environmental costs have been profound.

As the modern world grapples with the consequences of climate change—rising sea levels, extreme weather, biodiversity loss, and more—it becomes ever more vital to understand the origins of this crisis. The legacy of the Industrial Revolution is both a testament to human innovation and a cautionary tale of ecological hubris. Recognizing this dual legacy is essential to forging a sustainable path forward in the Anthropocene.

Appendix

Endnotes

Eric Hobsbawm, Industry and Empire: From 1750 to the Present Day (London: Penguin Books, 1999), 34–36.
Robert C. Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 90.
Joel Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy: An Economic History of Britain, 1700–1850 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 121–124.
Kenneth Pomeranz, The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 207.
E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1966), 203–208.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto (London: Verso, 1998), 38.
Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 65–70.
David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 110.
Peter N. Stearns, The Industrial Revolution in World History (Boulder: Westview Press, 2012), 173–176.
Vaclav Smil, Energy and Civilization: A History (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2017), 207–209.
Andreas Malm, Fossil Capital: The Rise of Steam Power and the Roots of Global Warming (London: Verso, 2016), 56–59.
Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2010), 4.
Smil, Energy and Civilization, 182-185.
Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy, 133-135.
Peter Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London since Medieval Times (London: Routledge, 1987), 98–102.
J. R. McNeill, Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World (New York: W. W. Norton, 2000), 29–30.
Paul J. Crutzen and Eugene F. Stoermer, “The ‘Anthropocene,’” Global Change Newsletter 41 (2000): 17–18.
Dipesh Chakrabarty, The Climate of History in a Planetary Age (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2021), 48.
Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke, 112-115.
Joseph Fourier, “Remarques Générales sur les Températures du Globe Terrestre et des Espaces Planétaires,” Annales de Chimie et de Physique 27 (1824): 136–167.
John Tyndall, Heat: A Mode of Motion (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1863), 345–350.
Svante Arrhenius, “On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground,” Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 41, no. 251 (1896): 237–276.
McNeill, Something New Under the Sun, 12-15.
Peter N. Stearns, The Industrial Revolution in World History (Boulder: Westview Press, 2012), 110–112.
E. A. Wrigley, Energy and the English Industrial Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 204–207.
Brimblecombe, The Big Smoke, 90-94.
McNeill, Something New Under the Sun, 19-22.
Steven Stoll, Larding the Lean Earth: Soil and Society in Nineteenth-Century America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 133–135.
Martin V. Melosi, Garbage in the Cities: Refuse, Reform, and the Environment (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2005), 56–58.
Robert J. Morris, Men, Women and Property in England, 1780–1870 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 98–100.
Edwin Chadwick, Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain (London: Poor Law Commissioners, 1842), 40–43.
John Snow, “On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,” The Lancet 1, no. 336 (1855): 75–83.
J. R. McNeill and Peter Engelke, The Great Acceleration: An Environmental History of the Anthropocene since 1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016), 22–25.
Smil, Energy and Civilization, 256-259.
Thomas F. Stocker et al., “The Historical Context of Carbon Dioxide from Ice Core Records,” Climate of the Past 9, no. 1 (2013): 239–257.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021), 4–6.
William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1991), 104–107.
James Rodger Fleming, Historical Perspectives on Climate Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 74–76.
Crutzen and Stoermer, “The Anthropocene,” 17–18.
Chakrabarty, The Climate of History in a Planetary Age, 112-115.
David Archer, The Long Thaw: How Humans Are Changing the Next 100,000 Years of Earth’s Climate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), 45–48.
George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature; or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (New York: Charles Scribner, 1864), 3–7.
Rachel Carson, Silent Spring (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962), 5–8.
Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City: Environmental Services in Urban America from Colonial Times to the Present (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 2000), 236–240.
Christophe Bonneuil and Jean-Baptiste Fressoz, The Shock of the Anthropocene: The Earth, History and Us (London: Verso, 2016), 26–29.
Chakrabarty, The Climate of History in a Planetary Age, 97-100.
Robert Gottlieb, Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement (Washington, DC: Island Press, 2005), 118–121.
Jason W. Moore, Capitalism in the Web of Life: Ecology and the Accumulation of Capital (London: Verso, 2015), 89–93.
Oreskes and Conway, Merchants of Doubt, 168-172.

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Originally published by Brewminate, 05.29.2025, under the terms of a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license.